3. from complex to more complex

DISCUSSION 3
FROM COMPLEX
TO
MORE COMPLEX
Ariel A. Roth
sciencesandscriptures.com

OUTLINE
1. The conflict
2. Interdependent parts
3. Natural selection
4. Some problems of natural selection
5. Complex systems abound
6. The long search for an evolutionary mechanism
7. Cladistics
8. Predation
9. Parasites and disease
10. Conclusions
11. Review questions

1. THE CONFLICT
In the book of Job in the Bible, God informs Job that He is
the Creator. One of his comments in verse 15 of chapter 40,
reflects on His creatorship of advanced organisms: “Behold now
behemoth, which I made with thee.” Behemoth is probably
referring to a hippopotamus, a dinosaur, or some other large
organism.
On the other hand, and in sharp contrast, biologist Scott
Todd (Nature 401:423, 1999) indicates that God is not allowed in
scientific interpretations: “Even if all data point to an intelligent
designer, such an hypothesis is excluded from science because it
is not naturalistic.”
Our discussion will focus on whether science has been able
to provide adequate naturalistic (no God involved, i.e.
evolutionary or materialistic) answers for the origin of the
complex features of advanced organisms. Our tiny microbes are
very complex, here we look at more complex organisms.

2. INTERDEPENDENT PARTS
My friend had a tragic accident. He fell asleep while driving at
night, and his car rolled into a stream. While he did not die, the
accident severed the lower part of his spinal cord and he was confined
to a wheel chair for the rest of his life. His legs that could no longer
receive any nerve impulses from his brain were useless cumbersome
impediments. The tendency for them to degenerate was so great that
after five years he had his legs cut off.
Most parts of our body, like the legs of my friend, are dependent
on other parts in order to function properly. We call the parts of these
associations interdependent parts. These are parts that are dependent
on each other in order to have a useful function. Unless all of the
necessary interdependent parts are present, you do not have a system
that works. Nothing works until all the necessary parts are present.
Most biological systems consist of a multitude of interdependent parts.
Interdependence is also referred to as irreducible complexity.

The muscles in my friend’s legs needed the
impulses from the nerves in order to function. The
muscles were useless without the nerves that had
been severed. Of course, the nerves themselves
would be useless without some kind of control
mechanism in the brain or spinal cord to initiate
an impulse to the nerves. All three of these parts,
the control system, the nerve, and the muscle are
necessary to provide a system that is useful. These
three essential and interdependent parts are
illustrated in the next slide.

3. from complex to more complex

The significance of this example of interdependent
parts is that in an evolutionary model, you need all the
essential parts of a system, in order to have something that
works and that would provide evolutionary survival value.
Useless parts that do not work are an encumbrance and
should be eliminated by the natural selection (survival of
the fittest) process because organisms without these
encumbrances would be superior.
Blind cave fish, that live in total darkness and lose
their eyes, illustrate how useless parts, that are an
encumbrance, tend to be eliminated by degeneration. Their
eyes are replaced by just a pocket of fatty tissue.

A burglar alarm system also illustrates interdependent
parts. In such a system you need (1) a sensor to detect an
intruder; (2) wires to communicate to a control system; (3) a
control system; (4) a source of power; (5) wires to communicate
to an alarm system; (5) an alarm system, usually a siren. All
these interdependent parts are essential; and like the muscle
system, all the essential parts have to be there in order for the
system to work.
We will be using the term complexity to describe systems
with interdependent parts. It is helpful to distinguish between
the terms complex and complicated. Something that is
complicated is not necessarily complex because the parts of
something that is complicated may not be associated with other
parts and the parts may not be interdependent.

Something that is complicated can be complex if the
parts are interdependent.
As an illustration, a pile of sand is complicated,
especially as you consider the various shapes of all the
grains, but the grains are not dependent on each other, so
the sand pile is not complex. On the other hand the various
parts of a computer or of a watch, such as the chips,
springs and the gears that mesh with each other represent
complexity. These parts are dependent on other parts in
order to work properly.
Some interdependent gears of a watch are illustrated
in the next slide.

GEARS IN A WATCH. The gears are dependent on other gears in order
to be able to work. They represent interdependent parts.

The watch has turned out to be a prime example in the
discussion between creation and evolution. It was made
famous two centuries ago by the English philosopher and
ethicist William Paley who raised a number of challenging
questions for those who did not believe in a creator God.
Paley pointed out that if you were out for a walk and found
a stone, you might not be able to explain its origin; on the
other hand if you found a watch on the ground (illustrated
on the next frame), you would immediately conclude that
the watch had a maker. Someone who understood watches
had to have put it together.

The philosopher William Paley pointed out that when you find a watch,
you immediately conclude that it has a maker. Photo courtesy of Clyde Webster.

Paley then goes on to point out that since it would
require some kind of designer to put a telescope together,
the eye must also have a designer. Furthermore he points
out that small gradual evolutionary changes will not work
for the evolution of some parts, like the vital epiglottis that
keeps food and drink out of our lungs when we swallow. If
the epiglottis evolved gradually, it would have been useless
most of that time, since an epiglottis that is too small would
not close the passage to the lungs.

As expected, Paley’s argument has been much
criticized by evolutionists. Recently, Oxford University
professor Richard Dawkins wrote a book titled The Blind
Watchmaker. It claims that Paley is very wrong and that
the “only watchmaker in nature is the blind forces of
physics.” However, this is not a good example to use,
because it turns out that the “blind forces of physics” are
extremely precise and they themselves present an
additional strong argument for a perceptive designer!
More about that will be considered in Discussion 6 titled
THE FINE-TUNED UNIVERSE.

Paley’s arguments have persisted for two
centuries. The recent complexities we have
discovered in DNA and biochemistry make his
kind of question all the more significant. The
complexity of advanced organisms adds further
interest to the question of who put this all
together.
Evolutionists suggest that Darwin’s idea of
natural selection provides the answer to Paley. We
will now take a closer look at that process, and the
problem that natural selection itself poses for the
gradual development of complex features with
interdependent parts.

3. NATURAL SELECTION
In 1859 Charles Darwin published his famous book
Origin of Species. In that book he proposed that organisms
evolved from simple to advanced forms, one little step at a
time by a process he called natural selection.
The principle is quite simple, and you likely know
about it. Darwin noted that there is (1)variation in nature.
Offspring are not exactly like their parents, some will be
better than others. He also noted that there is (2)
overproduction which results in too many organisms and
this causes competition for survival. The combination of
these two factors means that those organisms that are
superior will survive over those that are inferior. Thus,
over time, we have gradual evolutionary advancement by
natural selection, a process also designated as survival of
the fittest.

Natural selection is generally accepted as
the basic mechanism for evolution, although
some evolutionists opt for variation without
any natural selection. Natural selection is
also accepted by creationists, but it acts only
as a process that eliminates weak inferior
organisms, not as something that can create
new complex systems or organisms. This
distinction is important.

Most, whether creationists or evolutionists, agree that there
is variation in nature and that small changes can sometimes
occur as organisms reproduce. These minor changes, usually
within species, are commonly called microevolution and are an
observed fact. Proposed larger changes, especially involving
advancement and not degeneration, usually at the family, order,
class, phylum, division, and kingdom classification levels, are
called macroevolution. This is where creationists and
evolutionists disagree. Creationists do not believe these large
changes occur because they have not been observed.
Evolutionists point out that you would not expect to observe
them since they would occur gradually and take a very long
time. However, when you look at old fossils that represent the
past, you don’t see significant evidence for these gradual major
changes. See the discussions No. 12, and 13, titled PROBLEMS
FOSSILS POSE FOR EVOLUTION.

While there is no question that microevolution takes
place, some of the commonly purported cases of rapid
microevolutionary changes are probably not that. The
darkening of the peppered moth, the adaptation of insects
to insecticides, and some of the resistance of microbes to
antibiotics are likely caused by the manifestations of traits
already present in some of the organisms of the population
rather than new novel evolutionary advancement as often
suggested. Some leading evolutionists agree that for the
three examples given above, the mutations are already
present, and become abundant when the right conditions
prevail. However, some new mutations do occur. The
influenza and AIDS viruses are notorious for mutating
rapidly, but the changes are very minor.

4. SOME
PROBLEMS OF
NATURAL
SELECTION

4. SOME PROBLEMS OF NATURAL
SELECTION
The natural selection process of itself does not “prove”
evolution. The fittest would survive by natural selection
whether they evolved or were created by God!
a. CHANGES CAUSED BY MUTATIONS ARE USUALLY
DETRIMENTAL.
This is expected because of the complexity of
organisms. Mutations that cause changes [some mutations
are likely neutral] are usually considered random events,
and when you make random changes in complex systems
with interdependent parts that work together, this usually
has serious harmful effects. It is similar to making a
random change in just one letter on a printed page. The
change is usually detrimental because words need to be
spelled correctly and the interdependent words have to fit
into the meaning of the sentences and paragraphs.

4. SOME PROBLEMS OF NATURAL
SELECTION
a. MUTATIONS ARE USUALLY DETRIMENTAL.
While we do not have good figures as to the proportion
of good changes from mutations to bad ones, an estimate of
one good change out of a thousand mutations is sometimes
suggested by evolutionists and is at times considered to be
very generous for evolution. Some suggest only one
advantageous mutation out of a million. With such a low
proportion of good changes, evolutionary advancement
has to wait a long time for the right change. And in the
meantime, it has to survive a tremendous number of bad
changes, and this also poses a very serious problem for
evolution especially in limited slowly reproducing
populations. There isn’t enough time.

4. SOME PROBLEMS OF NATURAL SELECTION
b. NATURAL SELECTION CANNOT PLAN AHEAD SO
AS TO DEVELOP COMPLEX SYSTEMS.
In the competition for survival of the fittest, natural
selection acts on the immediate results of a mutation in a
plant or animal. Natural selection does not have the ability
to look into the future and select for something that is not
useful now but may be later on if associated with some
other advanced change. This is a serious impediment when
you consider the origin of complex systems, such as the
focusing mechanism of the eye, etc. The developing parts of
complex systems are usually useless until all the necessary
parts are present so you can have some function; and
without some function you have no survival value for
evolution.

b. NATURAL SELECTION CANNOT PLAN AHEAD
Some evolutionists have addressed this problem. One
suggestion is that the gradually developing parts are
useful, but this does not explain the problem of
interdependent parts that cannot work without other
parts. For instance, what would be the usefulness of
muscles to change the shape of the lens of the eye and focus
an image, if you did not have a system to detect if the
image in the eye was out of focus?
Another evolutionary suggestion to explain complexity
is that previously existing complex systems changed their
old function into a new one. Some old parts might be used,
but for this kind of change, you have to have a complex
system to start out with, and how did it evolve when
natural selection has no foresight to plan ahead?

c. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST WOULD INTREFERE
WITH THE EVOLUTION OF COMPLEX PARTS
In complex systems all the parts that are
necessary have to be there for the system to work.
This is the typical “chicken and egg” conundrum.
Which evolved first, the chicken or the egg? Both
are necessary for survival by reproduction.
Parts of developing complex systems would
likely be useless impediments until all necessary
parts had evolved and you had a functional system
that could provide some evolutionary survival
value.

c. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST WOULD INTERFERE WITH THE
EVOLUTION OF COMPLEX PARTS
The eyes of cave fish living in total darkness or
the legs of my friend with a severed spinal cord,
are excess baggage that you are better off without.
Natural selection would be expected to eliminate
these non-functioning parts. Hence, natural
selection, which is considered to be the basic
mechanism for evolution, would actually interfere
with the evolution of complex systems!

c. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST WOULD INTREFERE WITH
THE EVOLUTION OF COMPLEX PARTS
In our simple muscle, nerve and control
system example; if you were evolving a new
muscle, what survival value would a new muscle
have without a nerve and a control system? You
need at least all three essential parts to provide
function and survival value. A useless muscle is an
encumbrance, and, like the eyes of cave fish,
degenerative mutations and natural selection
would be expected to get rid of useless parts.
Organisms that would not have excess useless
developing parts would be expected to survive
over those that did.

c. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST WOULD INTREFERE WITH THE
EVOLUTION OF COMPLEX PARTS
It is of interest that as we look at over a million
different living species over the earth, we don’t
see complex systems in the process of evolving.
Why are there not some gradually evolving leaves
or flowers in plants that don’t produce them, or
new muscles, lungs, eyes, livers, etc., in animals
that don’t have them. This is a serious indictment
against an evolutionary process that is deemed to
be real and going on at present. Complexity poses
several serious problems for evolution.

5. COMPLEX SYSTEMS ABOUND
Biological systems illustrate many cases of
interdependent parts that would be useless by themselves.
While it is easy to suggest some kind of usefulness for
many things, and evolutionists try and do this, the problem
lies with the authentication of such suggestions.
There are many examples of interdependent parts.
Evolutionists have a gigantic task trying to explain these on
the basis of gradual changes that would have survival
value throughout the whole slow process of evolution.

For instance, if a primitive animal is adding a a new
bone in a limb, what good is that bone without muscles to
move it, and muscles have to have nerves and a precise
control system in order to work effectively. Which of these
parts evolved first, and what survival value would these
have until all the interdependent parts were present. To
suggest that all the random and very scarce good
mutations for all these interdependent parts occurred at
once challenges both rationality and scientific observation.
Except in the case of minor variations, we just do not see
evolution in the process of happening.

One of the marvels of nature is to watch a worm-like
caterpillar build a cocoon around itself, then lie dormant
for a short while, and then emerge as a flying butterfly.
This is a complete transformation. In the evolutionary
scenario, one can ask: which evolved first, the system that
provides the cocoon stage or the system that makes a
butterfly? The process needs survival value all along for
natural selection to work. What good is a cocoon without
producing a new kind of organism, and vice versa? For
this kind of scenario you need both a working cocoon and a
working butterfly.
We are beginning to learn some details about this
fascinating process. For instance, the caterpillar of the
silkworm moth, which is only eight centimeters long, will
spin out nearly a kilometer of silk thread in building its
cocoon.

We have learned that the caterpillar is
programmed ahead of time to form the
butterfly. In the cocoon, most of the tissues
of the caterpillar disintegrate and are used
to build the butterfly, which develops from
small bodies in the caterpillar called
imaginal discs. Many genes and hormones
are involved, and the timing of hormonal
activity is crucial.

Another question this activity poses for evolution is,
how did all these integrated changes that are necessary for
forming a butterfly ever evolve over a long period of time?
For instance, why evolve a hormone for certain activities
without a timing mechanism, and why evolve a timing
mechanism without a hormone to act on? Without timing
the hormonal activity would be out of control. One can also
ask how all the right random mutations necessary to
produce a flying butterfly ever occurred over time, without
foresight, while providing survival value all along the way.

Evolutionists recognize the problem. Some suggest
some kind of gradual evolutionary process in the
caterpillar that eventually ended up as a butterfly, but
authentication is lacking. Others suggest that the
caterpillar and the butterfly evolved separately as
independent organisms. Then the two organisms
reproductively mated to form the present caterpillar-butterfly
combination. This kind of extremely unlikely
speculation is what is sometimes called fact free science.
The next picture is that of a monarch caterpillar, and
the following is of a number of cocoons (chrysalises) with a
recently emerged monarch-like kind of butterfly, that was
all scrunched up in one of the cocoons. The butterfly is
likely now pumping fluids into its wings so as to spread
them out and letting them dry out before it flies away.

The monarch caterpillar will change into a cocoon stage, and the cocoon
stage will change into a monarch butterfly.

Cocoons and recently emerged monarch-like butterfly

Another complexity is sexual reproduction. Some
simple organisms commonly reproduce by dividing into
two by ordinary cell division, forming two new organisms
with the same DNA formula. More complex organisms
employ sexual reproduction that combines the DNA from
two organisms. This is a complicated process. In producing
sperms and ova (eggs) two special successive divisions take
place (meiosis). In the first there is exchange of DNA, in
the second the number of chromosomes is cut in half so
that the resulting offspring, with DNA from both parents,
will have the right total number. The process of forming
the different complicated bodies of sperms and ova is not
simple either. See the next figure.

Fertilization requires a system that will
combine the sperm and ovum. Many highly
specialized steps are necessary before the system
can work at all. This is another example of a series
of interdependent steps that would have no
survival value until all the necessary steps were
functioning. It does not seem that complex sexual
reproduction could ever gradually evolve. You
need functional sperms, ova, and a fertilization
process in order for the system to work at all and
have any evolutionary survival value. A sperm
without an ovum is useless and vice versa, and
both are useless without a system to combine their
DNA, and many other things are needed.

Sensory organs provide other examples of systems
with interdependent parts. For instance, a cell on our
tongues that detects sweetness is useless without a nerve
fiber to communicate that sensation, but both are useless
without a part of the brain that responds to the sensation.
Both seeing and hearing involve many interdependent
parts and complicated feedback mechanisms. The
illustration of the eye in the next frame has many systems
with interdependent parts, such as the autofocus,
mentioned earlier, and the auto exposure systems of
advanced eyes. We will discuss the eye in detail in the next
two discussions (No. 4, and 5) titled DARWIN AND THE
EYE.

VERTEBRATE
EYE
A. The complex
vertebrate eye.
B, C, D, enlarged
details.

6. THE LONG
SEARCH FOR AN
EVOLUTIONARY
MECHANISM

6. THE LONG SEARCH FOR AN
EVOLUTIONARY MECHANISM
How do evolutionists explain the origin
of complexity? Natural selection, which is
the usually understood evolutionary model,
cannot plan ahead and would tend to
eliminate the parts of developing complex
systems that have no survival value until all
the parts necessary to provide useful
function are present.

For two centuries, evolutionists have been
searching for an evolutionary mechanism that
would gradually produce advanced systems. One
idea after another has been adopted, but a realistic
model that explains the origin of complexity has
yet to be demonstrated. Most scientists agree that
evolution has taken place, but how it could happen
by itself has not been explained.

Some evolutionists cling to natural selection, others prefer
more pure chance models and neutral mutations. Some feel that
evolution proceeds by many small steps, but these have survival
problems. Still others prefer larger jumps, but these larger
jumps would require that lots of fortuitous good mutations
occur all at once to provide systems with evolutionary survival
value. Some computer models are purported to generate
complexity, but the programs are too simple to reflect real life
and are designed to give the desired results, hence are
unimpressive.
The next slide summarizes the history of the search for an
evolutionary mechanism.

Evolution is the best model scientists can come up with
if God is excluded, but it comes far short of plausibility.
Evolutionists are to be commended for their
perseverance, but after two centuries of an essentially
fruitless search for a plausible evolutionary mechanism
that evolves complex systems, it would seem that it is time
for scientists to look for non-naturalistic explanations. A
perceptive God seems essential to explain what we are
discovering in nature.

7. CLADISTICS
There is a new quiet trend going on in
evolution that is revising the way organisms are
classified. Instead of classifying by the general
appearance of the plant or animal, classification is
by what is assumed to be the past evolutionary
history of that organism. For instance, this
permits some evolutionists to claim that birds are
dinosaurs, since they think birds evolved from
dinosaurs, hence are the same group.

7. CLADISTICS
In this new trend called cladistics, sophisticated
mathematical comparisons are often made of unique
characteristics (synapomorphies) that are not found in most
other organisms. Many different characteristics are used
for the comparisons. The similarities in DNA base
sequence patterns are a very common factor used in
comparisons.
The idea is that the closer the DNA pattern the closer
the evolutionary relationship of the organisms. That seems
to make good sense if you assume evolution, but that is also
just what you would expect from creation by God. DNA
largely determines what the organism will be like, hence
the closer the similarities of various organisms the closer
the DNA pattern, whether the organisms evolved or were
created.

7. CLADISTICS
Sometimes the proposed evolutionary relationships
are illustrated in branching diagrams called cladograms. A
simple example of a cladogram for vertebrates is given in
the next frame. As you follow the lines up through the
cladogram you are following the proposed evolutionary
pathway. Development of new characteristics may be
designated along the lines. For instance in the vertebrate
cladogram the letter “T” (for tetrapod) represents the
evolution of the four legged pattern of most vertebrates,
and the organisms in the lines above the “T” have this.

Simple cladogram for vertebrates. Note that the warm-blooded
feature (W) originated twice.

7. CLADISTICS
In the vertebrate cladogram on the previous slide you
can see that the characteristic of warm bloodedness “W”
evolved two separate times, once for the birds and once for
the mammals. This is an example of what evolutionists call
convergent or parallel evolution. Indiscriminate use of this
concept confuses a pattern that is supposed to be based on
unique characteristics (synapomorphies). It does not seem
likely that many random mutations can produce the same
thing.
Recently a number of evolutionists have been
proposing that the traditional reptile class (lizards,
dinosaurs, crocodiles, turtles, snakes) is not a valid group
because they are too much like other groups such as birds
and mammals. Many ideas change.

7. CLADISTICS
The basic problem with cladograms is that while evolution
is implied, the suggested patterns do not mean that the
organisms necessarily evolved the way suggested or any other
way, and some evolutionists point this out. Cladograms mainly
show unique similarities, not evolution.
You can play the “cladogram game” with all kinds of
things that did not evolve from each other like toys or houses.
The next frame shows a cladogram for ladies hats. In this hat
cladogram, ribbons “R” evolved independently twice by parallel
or convergent evolution.
Actually, we all know that ladies hats are created, and did
not evolve from each other, but they make good cladograms.

Cladogram for ladies hats. Note that the ribbons feature
originated twice by parallel evolution.

8. PREDATION
When we look at nature, all is not well. The Bible indicates
that God’s creation was “very good” (Genesis 1:31), but it is not
that way now. Sharks devour people, and cats play with mice
before eating them. How did animals get that way? Evolutionists
think they evolved that way, but there appears to be too much
design in some of the predatory systems, like the venomous fang
mechanism of a snake, to think it could all happen gradually as
a result of random mutations.
Unfortunately, we do not have very definite answers.
Neither the Bible nor science give us the details we would like.
There are some things we just don’t know yet. However, we can
suggest some answers, and need to keep in mind that these are
not facts, but only suggestions. A few ideas from creationists
follow.

8. PREDATION
• Some predation may be caused by changes in behavior.
Maybe the original cats would have played with a ball as
they do now, but not with mice, and would not have
initially eaten mice.
• Sharp teeth need not imply eating other animals. The
hippopotamus has huge sharp teeth, but eats almost only
grass.
• Minor mutations producing small anatomical changes by
micromutations may have favored predation. The beak of
some birds that are now useful for predation may be an
example.
• When Adam and Eve sinned, the Bible tells us that plants
and the snake were changed (Genesis 3:14, 17-18). This
could explain the fang mechanism of snakes. Some other
organisms may also have been changed.

8. PREDATION
• Some suggest that there may have been selective breeding, as we
now do for different breeds of dogs; or possibly there may have
been some genetic engineering by man or Satan before the
Flood, resulting in predatory traits.
• There may have been some limited “predation” in the original
plan of creation. The suggestion is that some simple organisms
like ants or shrimp, are more like motile vegetables or seeds, in
that they do not have a sense of suffering or happiness any more
than a carrot or a microbe seems to have.
The idea is that small simple animals or plants do not suffer
when eaten. This may also explain the intriguing questions
about suffering posed when a spider web traps a fly, or an
elephant walked on an ant, in the idyllic Garden of Eden – the
ants or flies do not suffer! More advanced animals do. The Bible
indicates that plants were at least the main food for animals in
the Garden of Eden (Genesis 1:30).
• These are a few speculations. Remember, there are things we
don’t know.

9. PARASITES AND DISEASE
Parasites are another example of advanced organisms
where nature does not seem “very good.” A parasite is an
organism that lives on or in another organism, and is
dependent on that organism that is called the host. The
tick on a dog, the tapeworm in a human intestine, or a
germ infecting your blood stream are examples.
Here we have a distinctly different situation than
suggested advancement by evolution because we are
dealing with degeneration. We are going mainly in the
opposite direction of evolutionary advancement. It is easy
to degenerate by microevolution. You don’t have the
problem of complex planning for interdependent parts
mentioned above. Both evolutionists and creationists agree
that parasites likely originated from free living organisms
that in the past have invaded their hosts, and then
degenerated to the point that they are dependent on the
host.

Sometimes, in parasites, you can find parts of
biochemical pathways (See Discussion 2) used by free
living organisms to make a needed molecule. The molecule
is no longer manufactured by the parasite, because it can
be obtained directly from the host that manufactures it.
However, the presence in the parasite of part of the
mechanism to make the molecule indicates that in the past
the parasite was likely capable of making that molecule
when it was free living, but it has degenerated since then.
Another bit of evidence that parasites degenerated
from free living organisms is that, for instance in plants
you can find some species of tiny roundworms that just
stay on the outside, other species dig in a little, others dig
in a lot, and some can only live if inside a plant. This
sequence suggests gradual degeneration from a free living
state to a fully parasitic existence inside the host.

There are a lot of questions and few definitive answers
about the origin of parasites and disease. Evolutionists
think generally of degeneration along with a little
progressive evolution. A few ideas from creationists follow.
Viruses are not organisms, but fit in this discussion.
They could have been created by design, possibly even
helping in the normal balance of nature for the
microorganisms in which they lived. Another idea for the
origin of viruses is by the degeneration of bits of originally
created DNA or RNA coming from various organisms.
Some viruses may have degenerated and some have
even become harmful to humans and other animals by
small mutations (microevolution).

Our bacteria that cause diseases such as tuberculosis and
cholera can be quite easily explained in a creation context. They
probably have come from free living microbes or harmless
microbes living in other organisms. Random mutations, likely
mostly degenerative, or toxin-generating mutations, engendered
disease producing organisms. Mutations in bacterial populations
can occur quite rapidly, because there can be so many of them.
Under favorable conditions some of these organisms can
reproduce themselves in less that an hour.
There are some special features of parasites that may have
been designed. These include complex attaching organs of
worms with special hooks so they can stay in place in the host.
Also some parasites have very complex life cycles involving
several hosts, like the parasite that causes malaria. It adjusts to
reproducing in both mosquitoes and humans. These special
capabilities do not seem to be just simple degeneration of free
living organisms. Complexity seems involved.

Some who believe in creation suggest that parasites
are the result of genetic engineering in the past by man or
Satan. Others suggest that parasites were a fascinating
part of a “very good” original creation where parasites
were present but not originally harmful to their hosts.
They have degenerated and become harmful since then.
One original form of parasitism seems to be very good.
In human reproduction, each of us is a parasite of our
mother (the host) during our first nine months of
development before birth, hence, at one time we were all
parasites!
At present we have suggestions, but we do not have
enough information to come up with very secure answers
about the origin of parasites and disease.

10. CONCLUSIONS
FOR:
FROM COMPLEX
TO MORE
COMPLEX

10. CONCLUSIONS
Organisms are provided with an abundance of complex systems
with interdependent parts that cannot function unless other necessary
parts are present.
Mutations are random and only very rarely beneficial, hence they
do not provide a realistic mechanism for designing complex systems.
Natural selection cannot provide for the origin of complexities
because it has no foresight and cannot plan ahead. Natural selection
responds to immediate conditions, not future postulated ones.
Furthermore, natural selection would tend to eliminate the
cumbersome developing parts of complex systems, because these parts
do not provide survival value until all the necessary associated parts
are present to provide a useful function.

10. CONCLUSIONS
For two centuries, evolutionists have been looking for a plausible
evolutionary mechanism for complexity, but they have not found one.
Science needs to seriously look for other alternatives. God seems
necessary to explain what science is discovering.
Cladograms show similarities not evolution.
Changes in behavior and by microevolution may be the leading
causes for the change from the original “very good” creation, to the
significant predation now seen in the animal kingdom.
Parasites and infectious agents may largely represent
degeneration from originally harmless free living organisms that were
part of the original “very good” creation. Degeneration by harmful
mutations is much easier to explain than evolving complex systems by
mutations that have no plan or foresight.

11. REVIEW
QUESTIONS
(Answers given later below)

9. REVIEW QUESTIONS - 1
(Answers given later below)
1. It was pointed out that there is a major difference between complicated
systems that have independent parts, and complex systems that have
interdependent parts. With this in mind, what special problem does the
gradual evolution of complex systems pose? What problem does the
sudden evolution of complex systems pose?
2. Natural selection as proposed by Charles Darwin is considered to be the
leading driving mechanism for evolutionary advancement. Describe
the two main factors in this mechanism.
3. Explain why creationists believe in natural selection, but not in major
evolutionary development by natural selection.
4. Three major problems of natural selection were discussed above. They
are: Mutations are usually detrimental; natural selection cannot plan
ahead; incomplete complex systems would not survive. Briefly explain
each one in your own words.

REVIEW QUESTIONS - 2
5. What major problem does sexual reproduction and the production of a
butterfly from a caterpillar pose for evolution by natural selection?
What is the significance for evolution of the fact that we don’t now see
developing complex systems in organisms?
6. What are the implications of the fact that for two centuries, scientists
have been trying to find a mechanism for evolving complex systems?
7. Evolution is often implied as you follow the various lines up through a
cladogram. What is the real meaning of a cladogram?
8. What is the significance of the fact that hippopotamuses eat mainly
grass?
9. Parasites that live in other animals are considered to be degenerate
from free living organisms. Why is degeneration much easier to
explain than the generation of complex systems by evolution?

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS - 1
1. It was pointed out early in this discussion that there is a major
difference between complicated systems that have independent parts,
and complex systems that have interdependent parts. With this in
mind, what special problem does the gradual evolution of complex
systems pose? What problem does the sudden evolution of complex
systems pose?
When you gradually evolve complex systems, the various parts will not
have evolutionary survival value until all the necessary parts are there so
the system can work and be useful.
The sudden evolution of complex systems is not considered plausible for
evolution because all the different parts would have to appear at the same
time, and in the right place, just by chance.

2. Natural selection as proposed by Charles Darwin is considered to be the
leading driving mechanism for evolutionary advancement. Describe
the two main factors in this concept.
There is variation in nature as organisms reproduce.
There is competition and the fittest would survive thus resulting in
advancement.
3. Explain why creationists believe in natural selection, but not in major
evolutionary development by natural selection.
Natural selection has been observed to occur in some cases resulting in
minor variations, and natural selection should eliminate the weak and
aberrant organisms. However, it has not been observed to produce new
major kinds of organisms, and there are major scientific problems with
such suggestions, such as the gradual evolution of complex systems
having useless parts with no survival value.

4. Three major problems of natural selection were discussed above. They
are: Mutations are usually detrimental; natural selection cannot plan
ahead; incomplete complex systems would not survive. Briefly explain
each one in your own words.
a. Changes caused by mutations are usually detrimental because biological
systems are such complex integrated systems that most any change tends
to cause the interdependent parts of these systems to function poorly or
not at all.
b. Natural selection cannot plan ahead to design complex systems because
natural selection acts on immediate changes, and cannot favor revisions
that would only be useful some time later.
c. Natural selection would tend to hinder the development of complex
systems with interdependent parts by eliminating the parts of developing
systems that would be useless until the system can work and provide
survival value. Natural selection occasionally works for small changes,
but should usually hinder the gradual development of complex systems.

5. What major problem does sexual reproduction and the production of a
butterfly from a caterpillar pose for evolution by natural selection?
What is the significance for evolution of the fact that we don’t now see
evolving complex systems in organisms?
In the gradual evolution of sexual reproduction and in producing a
butterfly that can fly we have a great number of changes that are
necessary before anything works. When nothing works you have no
survival value, hence it does not seem that natural selection that has no
foresight could function to gradually evolve all the many necessary parts.
Natural selection would be expected to eliminate excess useless
developing parts and thus would actually interfere with the evolution of
complex systems!
The fact that we don’t see all kinds of new evolving complex
systems in the organisms of the earth suggests that complex systems do
not evolve.

6. What are the implications of the fact that for two centuries, scientists
have been trying to find a mechanism for evolving complex systems?
The fact that after proposing various models for two centuries scientists
are still looking, suggests that there may not be a plausible evolutionary
model. It is time for science to seriously reconsider creation by God.
7. Evolution is often implied as you follow the various lines up through a
cladogram. What is the real meaning of a cladogram?
A cladogram is a diagrammatic representation of degrees of similarity
between organisms, especially unique similarities. Of course some
organisms are more similar to some than to others, but this does not
mean that they have a common evolutionary ancestor unless you assume
evolution. The cladogram basically says how organisms are similar or
different when compared to others, not that they evolved from each other.

8. What is the significance of the fact that hippopotamuses eat mainly
grass?
Hippopotamuses have huge sharp teeth that would normally be
interpreted as useful in eating other animals. However the hippopotamus
eats mainly grass, thus indicating that you can’t always tell the diet of an
animal by looking at the teeth.
9. Parasites that live in other animals are considered to be degenerate
from free living organisms. Why is degeneration much easier to
explain than the generation of complex systems by evolution?
There are two main reasons. Mutations are usually detrimental and
thus easily contribute to degeneration. Also, mutations, which are
random, have no foresight to plan ahead, and thus cannot design
complex systems that would only have survival value after all the parts
necessary for the system to work were present. Simple degeneration of
complex systems that already exist bypasses that problem.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
For further discussions by the author (Ariel A. Roth) and many additional references, see
the author’s books titled:
1. ORIGINS: LINKING SCIENCE AND SCRIPTURE. Hagerstown, MD. Review and
Herald Publishing Association.
2. SCIENCE DISCOVERS GOD: Seven Convincing Lines of Evidence for His Existence.
Hagerstown, MD. Autumn House Publishing, an imprint of Review and Herald
Publishing Association.
Additional information is available on the author’s Web Page: Sciences and Scriptures.
www.sciencesandscriptures.com. Also see many articles published by the author and
others in the journal ORIGINS which the author edited for 23 years. For access see the
Web Page of the Geoscience Research Institute www.grisda.org.
Highly Recommended URLs are:
Earth History Research Center http://origins.swau.edu
Theological Crossroads www.theox.org
Sean Pitman www.detectingdesign.com
Scientific Theology www.scientifictheology.com
Geoscience Research Institute www.grisda.org
Sciences and Scriptures www.sciencesandscriptures.com
Other Web Pages providing a variety of related answers are: Creation-Evolution Headlines,
Creation Ministries International, Institute for Creation Research, and Answers in
Genesis.

USE PERMIT
Free unrevised use for personal and non-commercial
distribution of this material in its original publication
medium is granted and encouraged. Proper attribution
should be given. Permission for multiple printing for
classroom use or not-for-profit public meetings is also
freely allowed.
In using this material in this format, accurate
attribution should be maintained for any illustrations
where credit is designated. Many illustrations are by the
author and free use is granted for all media. However,
when credit to another source is given, permission might
be necessary from the source for certain different kinds of
communication media than the present use.

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